Pfizer Neuron Run Video game

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How Neurons Communicate

This is a graphic of a Neuron and its pathways. To see a larger version click here.

Neurons (another name for nerve cells) are cells that carry information in the brain (and in the central nervous system, but that’s another story). Neurons have specialized projections called dendrites and axons. Dendrites bring information to the neuron cell body and axons take information away from the neuron cell body. Incoming information is received by the dendrites (see below) and passes through the neuron cell body and through the axon of the neuron. For communication between neurons to occur, an electrical impulse must travel down an axon to the synaptic terminal.

Information from one neuron flows to another neuron across a synapse. The synapse is a small gap separating 2 neurons. All messages are passed between connected neurons in the form of chemicals called neurotransmitters. They flow from a message-sending neuron across the synapse and onto target neurons. The chemicals attach to a place on the surface of the receiving neuron — a protein called a receptor site. Many scientists compare the union to a key fitting in a lock.

Once attached, different neurotransmitters either trigger “go” signals that allow the message to be passed to the next neuron in the communication line or produce “stop” signals that prevent the message from being forwarded. The signals are in the form of charged particles or ions. The brain keeps tight control of this message delivery system to avoid communication chaos.
Exploring the Senses

Click a sense to read about its pathways.

• Sight
• Sound
• Taste
• Smell
  

THE VISUAL PATHWAY Vision begins when light-sensitive photoreceptor cells in the retinas (layers of cells at the back of the eye) of both eyes pick up light and transmit information to the brain. Visual information leaves the eye by way of the optic nerve. Like many pathways in the nervous system, some right eye and left eye visual information cross to the otherside of the brain. In the visual pathway, this process occurs in the optic chiasm. Once the axons carrying the information cross within the optic chiasm and they are called the optic tract. Axons in the optic tract then projected to the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) of the brain. From there, the LGN axons fan out through the deep white matter of the brain as the optic radiations, which will ultimately travel to the occipital lobe at the back of the brain.Within the occipital lobe, cells in the primary visual cortex, are the first to receive messages from the lateral geniculate. Signals conveying color information then go on to several nearby visual areas for further processing. For perception and recognition, signals are then sent to so-called “higher centers,” where they interact with stored memories and input from other sensory and motor centers.

THE HEARING PATHWAY The folds and ridges of the external ear channel sound into the ear canal and to the eardrum at the end of the canal. When sound waves vibrate the eardrum, sound energy is transferred to the middle ear. The middle ear is a small, air-filled pocket bound by the eardrum on the external side and the oval window of the inner ear on the other. The middle ear houses the three smallest bones in the body, which form a chain of levers connected by joints. This series of membranes and bones forms a pathway that carries vibrations from the eardrum to the inner ear. The inner ear is composed of the cochlea and the semicircular canals. The cochlea is filled with a special fluid, and the pushing and pulling of the smallest bone in the middle ear (called the stapes) on the oval window moves the fluid in this coiled tube. Forming the lengthwise partition between the lower large tube and the small tube is the basilar membrane. On this membrane sit the stars of the show in the auditory system, the auditory receptor cells, or hair cells. Signals from neurons that get information directly from hair cells travel in the auditory nerve to the brainstem. Here the signals activate more neurons, which send the auditory messages on to the thalamus, then to the auditory cortex in the temporal lobe of the brain where sound is identified.

THE TASTE PATHWAY As you bite into a piece of food with your mouth, molecules escape and fit into a slots on a taste membrane receptors on the taste bud that can accommodate only that class of molecular structures. This latching together of molecules and taste membrane receptors produces an electrical signal. The electrical signal from a taste receptor goes directly to the terminal of a primary taste sensory neuron, which is in contact with the receptor cell right in the taste bud. The cell bodies of these neurons are in the brainstem (lower part of the brain, below the cerebrum) and their axons form pathways in several cranial nerves. Once these nerve cells get electrical messages from the taste cells, they pass the messages on through relay neurons to two major centers: the limbic system and the cerebral cortex. Messages to the limbic system give you that “love it” or “hate it” feeling. Other pathways stimulate motor centers to cause salivation, chewing, and swallowing. The signals to your frontal cortex allow you to identify the food and activate motor neurons that allow you to say, “That tastes great!” and to use your spoon to take more food.

THE SMELL PATHWAY Smells are detected in the nose. In the roof of each nostril is a region called the nasal mucosa. This region contains the sensory olfactory epithelium – covered by mucus. The epithelial cells possess a knob that projects above the epithelial surface, from which extend about 8-20 olfactory cilia. These cilia contain the smell receptors and project into the mucus and, at the other end, axons that connect to the olfactory bulb. Mitral cells are the principal neurons in the olfactory bulb Their axons merge together to form the lateral olfactory tract. Neurons from the lateral olfactory tract connect to the limbic system, an ancient region of the brain concerned with motivation, emotion and certain kinds of memory. Neurons also connect to the thalamus, which in turn is connected to the frontal cortex where signals are compared to those in memory for recognition. There are many forward and backward connections between each of the other brain centers.

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ION CHANNELS

TOP 99 ION CHANNEL PUBLICATION 2007 (First half)

1. Nilius et al. (2007) Transient receptor potential cation channels in disease. Physiol Rev
2. Bautista et al. (2007) The menthol receptor TRPM8 is the principal detector of environmental cold. Nature
3. Clapham et al. (2007) SnapShot: Mammalian TRP Channels. Cell
4. Nattel et al. (2007) Arrhythmogenic Ion-Channel Remodeling in the Heart: Heart Failure, Myocardial Infarction, and Atrial Fibrillation. Physiol Rev
5. Salinas et al. (2007) Molecules to remember. Cell
6. Macpherson et al. (2007) Noxious compounds activate TRPA1 ion channels through covalent modification of cysteines. Nature
7. Lewis et al. (2007) The molecular choreography of a store-operated calcium channel. Nature
8. Myers et al. (2007) TRP Channel Structural Biology: New Roles for an Old Fold. Neuron
9. McCormick et al. (2007) Neurophysiology: Hodgkin and Huxley model–still standing? Nature
10. McHugh et al. (2007) Dentate Gyrus NMDA Receptors Mediate Rapid Pattern Separation in the Hippocampal Network. Science
11. Sokolov et al. (2007) Gating pore current in an inherited ion channelopathy. Nature
12. Imura et al. (2007) alpha-Klotho as a regulator of calcium homeostasis. Science
13. Nugent et al. (2007) Opioids block long-term potentiation of inhibitory synapses. Nature
14. Zimmermann et al. (2007) Sensory neuron sodium channel Nav1.8 is essential for pain at low temperatures. Nature
15. Shimizu et al. (2007) Proteolytic Degradation of SCOP in the Hippocampus Contributes to Activation of MAP Kinase and Memory. Cell
16. Biskup et al. (2007) Relating ligand binding to activation gating in CNGA2 channels. Nature
17. Dhaka et al. (2007) TRPM8 Is Required for Cold Sensation in Mice. Neuron
18. Lam et al. (2007) Brain glucose metabolism controls the hepatic secretion of triglyceride-rich lipoproteins. Nat Med
19. Martin et al. (2007) SUMOylation regulates kainate-receptor-mediated synaptic transmission. Nature
20. Kim et al. (2007) BACE1 regulates voltage-gated sodium channels and neuronal activity. Nat Cell Biol
21. Paradis et al. (2007) An RNAi-Based Approach Identifies Molecules Required for Glutamatergic and GABAergic Synapse Development. Neuron
22. Perlstein et al. (2007) Genetic basis of individual differences in the response to small-molecule drugs in yeast. Nat Genet
23. Snutch et al. (2007) The Sodium “Leak” Has Finally Been Plugged. Neuron
24. Lamsa et al. (2007) Anti-Hebbian long-term potentiation in the hippocampal feedback inhibitory circuit. Science
25. Sobczyk et al. (2007) Activity-Dependent Plasticity of the NMDA-Receptor Fractional Ca(2+) Current. Neuron
26. Jourdain et al. (2007) Glutamate exocytosis from astrocytes controls synaptic strength. Nat Neurosci
27. Ludwiczek et al. (2007) Ca(2+) channel blockers reverse iron overload by a new mechanism via divalent metal transporter-1. Nat Med
28. Zurborg et al. (2007) Direct activation of the ion channel TRPA1 by Ca(2+). Nat Neurosci
29. Zhang et al. (2007) R-type Ca(2+)-channel-evoked CICR regulates glucose-induced somatostatin secretion. Nat Cell Biol
30. Liu et al. (2007) Ca(2+)-permeable AMPA receptors in synaptic plasticity and neuronal death. Trends Neurosci
31. Zhang et al. (2007) Decoding NMDA Receptor Signaling: Identification of Genomic Programs Specifying Neuronal Survival and Death. Neuron
32. Heron et al. (2007) Channelopathies in Idiopathic Epilepsy. Neurotherapeutics
33. Li et al. (2007) The Neuregulin-1 Receptor ErbB4 Controls Glutamatergic Synapse Maturation and Plasticity. Neuron
34. Elliott et al. (2007) Incident diabetes in clinical trials of antihypertensive drugs: a network meta-analysis. Lancet
35. Nevian et al. (2007) Properties of basal dendrites of layer 5 pyramidal neurons: a direct patch-clamp recording study. Nat Neurosci
36. Rao et al. (2007) NMDA and AMPA receptors: old channels, new tricks. Trends Neurosci
37. Chung et al. (2007) TRP Channel Knockout Mice Lose Their Cool. Neuron
38. Lerchner et al. (2007) Reversible silencing of neuronal excitability in behaving mice by a genetically targeted, ivermectin-gated cl(-) channel. Neuron
39. Torres et al. (2007) Glutamate and monoamine transporters: new visions of form and function. Curr Opin Neurobiol
40. Arenkiel et al. (2007) In vivo light-induced activation of neural circuitry in transgenic mice expressing channelrhodopsin-2. Neuron
41. Kwon et al. (2007) Integration of Phosphoinositide- and Calmodulin-Mediated Regulation of TRPC6. Mol Cell
42. Wang et al. (2007) Corrigendum: Structural basis for modulation of Kv4 K(+) channels by auxiliary KChIP subunits. Nat Neurosci
43. Thompson et al. (2007) I(A) in play. Neuron
44. Yang et al. (2007) The muscle-specific microRNA miR-1 regulates cardiac arrhythmogenic potential by targeting GJA1 and KCNJ2. Nat Med
45. Lockless et al. (2007) Structural and Thermodynamic Properties of Selective Ion Binding in a K(+) Channel. PLoS Biol
46. Scheschonka et al. (2007) Sumoylation in neurons: nuclear and synaptic roles? Trends Neurosci
47. Ring et al. (2007) An SGK1 site in WNK4 regulates Na+ channel and K+ channel activity and has implications for aldosterone signaling and K+ homeostasis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A
48. Raingo et al. (2007) Alternative splicing controls G protein-dependent inhibition of N-type calcium channels in nociceptors. Nat Neurosci
49. Waxman et al. (2007) Channel, neuronal and clinical function in sodium channelopathies: from genotype to phenotype. Nat Neurosci
50. Qi et al. (2007) All four CatSper ion channel proteins are required for male fertility and sperm cell hyperactivated motility. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A
51. Ikeda et al. (2007) Calcium channels diversify their signaling portfolio. Nat Neurosci
52. Kuramoto et al. (2007) Phospho-Dependent Functional Modulation of GABA(B) Receptors by the Metabolic Sensor AMP-Dependent Protein Kinase. Neuron
53. Tai et al. (2007) Activity-regulated N-cadherin endocytosis. Neuron
54. et al. (2007) Structural aspects of AMPA receptor activation, desensitization and deactivation. Curr Opin Neurobiol
55. Grosmaitre et al. (2007) Dual functions of mammalian olfactory sensory neurons as odor detectors and mechanical sensors. Nat Neurosci
56. Kindt et al. (2007) Caenorhabditis elegans TRPA-1 functions in mechanosensation. Nat Neurosci
57. Hogan et al. (2007) Dissecting I(CRAC), a store-operated calcium current. Trends Biochem Sci
58. Howard et al. (2007) Structural Insight into KCNQ (Kv7) Channel Assembly and Channelopathy. Neuron
59. Hawasli et al. (2007) Cyclin-dependent kinase 5 governs learning and synaptic plasticity via control of NMDAR degradation. Nat Neurosci
60. Iftinca et al. (2007) Regulation of T-type calcium channels by Rho-associated kinase. Nat Neurosci
61. Cuthbert et al. (2007) Synapse-associated protein 102/dlgh3 couples the NMDA receptor to specific plasticity pathways and learning strategies. J Neurosci
62. Colburn et al. (2007) Attenuated Cold Sensitivity in TRPM8 Null Mice. Neuron
63. Krey et al. (2007) Molecular mechanisms of autism: a possible role for Ca(2+) signaling. Curr Opin Neurobiol
64. Xu et al. (2007) Calpain-Mediated mGluR1alpha Truncation: A Key Step in Excitotoxicity. Neuron
65. Rollema et al. (2007) Rationale, pharmacology and clinical efficacy of partial agonists of alpha(4)beta(2) nACh receptors for smoking cessation. Trends Pharmacol Sci
66. Wedel et al. (2007) Role of the Store-operated Calcium Entry Proteins, Stim1 and Orai1, in Muscarinic-Cholinergic Receptor Stimulated Calcium Oscillations in Human Embryonic Kidney Cells. J Physiol
67. Bostick et al. (2007) Selectivity in K+ channels is due to topological control of the permeant ion’s coordinated state. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A
68. Greger et al. (2007) AMPA receptor biogenesis and trafficking. Curr Opin Neurobiol
69. Masugi-Tokita et al. (2007) High-resolution quantitative visualization of glutamate and GABA receptors at central synapses. Curr Opin Neurobiol
70. Kastning et al. (2007) Molecular determinants for the interaction between AMPA receptors and the clathrin adaptor complex AP-2. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A
71. Liao et al. (2007) Orai proteins interact with TRPC channels and confer responsiveness to store depletion. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A
72. Tour et al. (2007) Calcium Green FlAsH as a genetically targeted small-molecule calcium indicator. Nat Chem Biol
73. Brauchi et al. (2007) Dissection of the components for PIP2 activation and thermosensation in TRP channels. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A
74. Lee et al. (2007) A calcium-activated nonselective cation conductance underlies the plateau potential in rat substantia nigra GABAergic neurons. J Neurosci
75. Halliwell et al. (2007) A short history of the rise of the molecular pharmacology of ionotropic drug receptors. Trends Pharmacol Sci
76. Roux et al. (2004) Theoretical and computational models of biological ion channels. Q Rev Biophys
77. Antzelevitch et al. (2007) Loss-of-Function Mutations in the Cardiac Calcium Channel Underlie a New Clinical Entity Characterized by ST-Segment Elevation, Short QT Intervals, and Sudden Cardiac Death. Circulation
78. Vitko et al. (2007) The I-II loop controls plasma membrane expression and gating of Ca(v)3.2 T-type Ca2+ channels: a paradigm for childhood absence epilepsy mutations. J Neurosci
79. Wang et al. (2007) Blockage of intermediate-conductance-Ca(2+)-activated K(+) channels inhibits progression of human endometrial cancer. Oncogene
80. Kakizawa et al. (2007) Junctophilin-mediated channel crosstalk essential for cerebellar synaptic plasticity. EMBO J
81. Jones et al. (2007) Declining Into Failure. The Age-Dependent Loss of the L-Type Calcium Channel Within the Sinoatrial Node. Circulation
82. Lee et al. (2007) Astrocytic control of synaptic NMDA receptors. J Physiol
83. Cai et al. (2007) Hyperexcitability of Distal Dendrites in Hippocampal Pyramidal Cells after Chronic Partial Deafferentation. J Neurosci
84. Zhang et al. (2007) The Transduction Channel TRPM5 Is Gated by Intracellular Calcium in Taste Cells. J Neurosci
85. Chakrapani et al. (2007) How to gate an ion channel: lessons from MthK. Nat Struct Mol Biol
86. Hildebrand et al. (2007) Selective inhibition of Cav3.3 T-type calcium channels by Galpha q/11-coupled muscarinic acetylcholine receptors. J Biol Chem
87. Dzhashiashvili et al. (2007) Nodes of Ranvier and axon initial segments are ankyrin G-dependent domains that assemble by distinct mechanisms. J Cell Biol
88. Blondeau et al. (2007) Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids Are Cerebral Vasodilators via the TREK-1 Potassium Channel. Circ Res
89. Zhang et al. (2007) Contribution of hydrophobic and electrostatic interactions to the membrane integration of the Shaker K+ channel voltage sensor domain. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A
90. McGehee et al. (2007) GIRK Channels as a Target for SSRIs. J Neurophysiol
91. Kaushal et al. (2007) The Ca2+-Activated K+ Channel KCNN4/KCa3.1 Contributes to Microglia Activation and Nitric Oxide-Dependent Neurodegeneration. J Neurosci
92. Benson et al. (2007) SUMO modification regulates inactivation of the voltage-gated potassium channel Kv1.5. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A
93. Witchel et al. (2007) The hERG potassium channel as a therapeutic target. Expert Opin Ther Targets
94. Priest et al. (2007) Subtype-selective sodium channel blockers promise a new era of pain research. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A
95. Ulbrich et al. (2007) Subunit counting in membrane-bound proteins. Nat Methods
96. Ke et al. (2007) Regulation of L-type Calcium Channel and Delayed Rectifier Potassium Channel Activity by p21-Activated Kinase-1 in Guinea Pig Sinoatrial Node Pacemaker Cells. Circ Res
97. Nakayama et al. (2007) Molecular and electrophysiological characterization of a mechanosensitive channel expressed in the chloroplasts of Chlamydomonas. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A
98. ñeda-Castellanos et al. (2006) Blind patch clamp recordings in embryonic and adult mammalian brain slices. Nat Protoc
99. Altier et al. (2007) Differential Role of N-Type Calcium Channel Splice Isoforms in Pain. J Neurosci

Neurocompare

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VelvetLee Finckbone, MS
Lab Technician
Texas Tech University Health Science Center

Example.2

I am trying to grow Caco-2 cells for intestinal permeability assays. The cells take about 3 weekes to grow and it is very difficult to obtain a uniform monolayer, most of the time they grow in clumps. I also see lots of cell debris in the flask. Is there a way to grow these cells better

What is Neuroscience ( for beginners )?

Molecular Neuroscience	Cellular Neuroscience	Developmental Neuroscience	Neuroanatomy
Computational Neuroscience	Sensory Neuroscience	Behavioral Neuroscience	Neurology

Introducing Neurocompare

Neurocompare allows you to discuss your experiences with your fellows in this profession when you use a product for your research which may include a reagent or a software. You might also get help in designing your experiments with the right products with the experiences shared by other members.

Your suggestions are always welcome…